Chemotherapy for cancers is usually limited by the toxicity of drugs to normal tissues. Additionally, short circulation half-life in plasma, limited aqueous solubility, and non-selectivity are usually encountered by most of the currently available anticancer drugs and thus restrict their therapeutic efficacy (Adv. Drug Deliver. Rev. 2002; 54:695-713). To reduce the toxicity and increase the therapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs, various drug carriers, such as soluble polymers, polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, and microspheres have been investigated (J. Control. Release 2000; 69:225-236; J. Control. Release 2003; 92:49-67; J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2003; 65A:271-282). The hydrophilic shell-forming block determines surface properties of the nanoparticles and influences interactions between the surrounding environments and the nanoparticles (Biomaterials 2003; 24:2053-2059).
Nanoparticles may be delivered to specific sites by size-dependant passive targeting or by active targeting (Cancer Res. 1986; 46:6387-6392; J. Control. Release 1999; 62:253-262). To obtain a high degree of selectivity to a specific organ and to enhance the uptake of drug-loaded nanoparticles into the target cells, active targeting has been attempted. Liver has been one of the most desirable target organs in the body due to various liver-related metabolic and infectious diseases and cancers (Int. J. Pharm. 1999; 188:39-47). The asialoglycoprotein (ASGP) receptor is known to be present on hepatocytes and several human hepatoma cell lines (Adv. Drug Deliver. Rev. 1989; 4:49-63). Therefore, liver targeting is achieved by designing drug delivery systems conjugated with a ligand that can bind to the ASGP receptors.
Poly(lactide) (PLA), poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), poly(β-benzyl L-aspartate) (PLBA), and poly(γ-benzyl L-glutamate) (PLBG) have been used mostly for the core-forming hydrophobic segment of nanoparticles (J. Control. Release 2004; 94:323-335). On the other hand, poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), a non-toxic and highly hydrated polymer, has been used as the outer shell segment of nanoparticles because of its superior biocompatibility (J. Control. Release 2004; 94:323-335). In one embodiment of the present invention, PLA was used for the hydrophobic segment of the block copolymer, while a natural compound [poly(γ-glutamic acid), γ-PGA], produced as capsular substance or as slime by members of the genus Bacillus, was used as the hydrophilic segment.
γ-PGA is unique in that it is composed of naturally occurring L-glutamic acid linked together through amide bonds rather than a nondegradable C—C backbone such as PEO. It was reported that this naturally occurring γ-PGA is a water-soluble, biodegradable, and non-toxic polymer (Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 2001; 21:219-232). A related, but structurally different, polymer poly(α-glutamic acid), (α-PGA) is usually synthesized from poly(γ-benzyl-L-glutamate) by removing the benzyl protecting group with the use of hydrogen bromide (Adv. Drug Deliver. Rev. 2002; 54:695-713). Li et al. conjugated paclitaxel onto α-PGA via covalent bonding to form a new drug formulation (Cancer Res. 1998; 58:2404-2409). Their pre-clinical data suggested that the uptake of α-PGA-paclitaxel by tumor cells was about 5-fold greater than that of paclitaxel. Additionally, α-PGA-paclitaxel had a significantly longer circulation half-life in plasma than paclitaxel (Adv. Drug Deliver. Rev. 2002; 54:695-713). For the potential of targeting liver cancer cells, the prepared nanoparticles are further conjugated with galactosamine. Hashida et al. reported using α-PGA as a polymeric backbone and galactose moiety as a ligand to target hepatocytes (J. Control. Release 1999; 62:253-262). Their in vivo results indicated that the galactosylated α-PGA had a remarkable targeting ability to hepatocytes and degradation of α-PGA was observed in the liver. The internalization efficiency of the prepared nanoparticles with or without galactosamine conjugated into HepG2 cells (a liver cancer cell line) was examined in vitro using a confocal laser scanning microscope.
Liver cancer is a common lethal disease in Asia (Br J Cancer 1998; 78:34-39). It is also the ninth leading cause of cancer deaths in the United States (Cancer Lett. 1999; 136:109-118). It is known that chemotherapy for cancers is usually limited by the toxicity of drugs to normal tissues (Adv. Drug Deliver. Rev. 2002; 54:695-713). The self-assembled nanoparticles, composed of amphiphilic block copolymers, have a hydrophobic inner core and a hydrophilic outer shell. In a co-pending application U.S. Ser. No. 10/958,864, filed Oct. 5, 2004, it is disclosed that poly(γ-glutamic acid) (abbreviated as γ-PGA) and poly(lactide) (abbreviated as PLA) are used to synthesize amphiphilic block copolymers via a simple coupling reaction between γ-PGA and PLA to prepare a novel type of self-assembled nanoparticles (J. Control. Release 2005; 105:213-225). No aggregation or precipitation of the nanoparticles was observed during storage for up to 1 month, because of the electrostatic repulsion between the negatively charged nanoparticles (J. Control. Release 2005; 105:213-225). γ-PGA, produced by certain Bacillus species, is a naturally occurring anionic homo-polyamide that is made of L-glutamic acid units connected by amide linkages between α-amino and γ-carboxylic acid groups (Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 2001; 21:219-232). Because of its water-solubility, biodegradability, edibility, and non-toxicity toward humans, several applications of γ-PGA in food, cosmetics, and medicine have been investigated in the past few years.
Owing to its unique structure, paclitaxel readily enters mammalian cells and preferentially binds to tubulin in polymerized microtubules (J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270:20235-20238). This binding stabilizes microtubules and greatly interferes with microtubular reorganization necessary, among other factors, for spindle formation and cell division (Cancer Lett. 1999; 136:109-118). Thus, exposure of susceptible cells to paclitaxel has been shown to initially cause arrest in the G2/M phase and finally to cell death through apoptotic mechanisms (Cancer Res. 1996; 56:816-825).
Most chemotherapy drugs are generally taken up non-specifically by all types of cells resulting in serious side effects. Physical cancer therapy, such as radiofrequency ablation, has less side effects but it is difficult to target the specific tumor site or the in vivo range of heating. Therefore, patients may have a recurrence of cancer.
Liposomes have good biocompatibility and can carry hydrophobic or hydrophilic drug. Liposomes can carry the thermal sensitive compound (also known as thermal triggered phase-transition compound), such as NH4HCO3, which is able to generate CO2 by heat to an elevated temperature in situ to rapidly blow up the liposomes inside a cell. In general, cells would be little damaged if the cell temperature were maintained lower than about 42° C.
Stimuli-responsive nanoparticles (NPs) have been receiving much attention as a drug-delivery vehicle for therapeutic applications. Here we disclose a pharmaceutical composition of biodegradable nanoparticles and a method of intracellularly monitoring/imaging the release of an anticancer drug (for example doxorubicin) from pH-responsive nanoparticles using Förster resonance energy transfer. It is also disclosed pH-responsive doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded NPs, made of N-palmitoyl chitosan bearing a Cy5 moiety (Cy5-NPCS), as an anticancer delivery device.